Enact Solar Review: Features, Pricing, Pros & Cons (2026)

Read our in-depth Enact Solar review covering features, pricing, use cases, pros & cons, and whether it’s the right solar software for installers and EPCs.

Keyur Rakholiya
February 3, 2026

TL;DR: Enact Solar Quick Verdict

Rating: 4.1/5 (based on G2 reviews and market position)

Enact Solar is SurgePV's most direct competitor. Same vision: all-in-one platform for SMB installers. They've been at it since 2014, operate in 35+ countries, and just acquired PVComplete to fix their design gap. At $299/month for 2 users, pricing is transparent.

Best For: International installers (35+ countries), companies wanting all-in-one with 10+ year track record, teams that need Enact Home consumer app for customer engagement.

Not Ideal For: US-focused EPCs (weaker domestic penetration than Aurora), teams needing deep electrical engineering (SLDs, wire sizing), companies wanting lowest pricing ($299/mo vs $1,499/year for 3 users SurgePV).

Bottom Line: Solid all-in-one platform with international strength. The PVComplete acquisition is promising but unproven. For US commercial EPCs, SurgePV offers better US focus, unified architecture, and lower pricing.

What Is Enact Solar?

Enact Solar (formerly Enerplus) launched in 2014 in Pleasanton, California. The platform targets solar installers and EPCs who want design, CRM, proposals, project management, and monitoring in a single subscription.

Leadership & Company Background

Deep Chakraborty leads as CEO. His background includes executive roles at Centrosolar, giving him direct industry experience. Manasij Kar is COO and head of Product, bringing 20 years of solar industry experience including time at Q Cells.

The company has grown steadily: 80 employees, $20.5M total funding, 1,000+ users across 35+ countries, and $1.5B in projects processed annually.

Company Overview Table

Detail Information
Founded 2014 (Pleasanton, CA)
Former Name Enerplus
CEO Deep Chakraborty (ex-Centrosolar)
COO/Product Manasij Kar (20yr solar, ex-Q Cells)
Employees 80
Total Funding $20.5M
Series A $11.5M
Series B $2.13M (July 2025)
Customers 1,000+ users
Countries 35+
Projects/Year $1.5B processed
Key Clients Black & Veatch, Mahindra Susten, Jinko, JLL

Enact Solar Features Analysis

Let me break down what Enact offers and how it compares to alternatives.

Design Tools (Now with PVComplete)

The January 2026 PVComplete acquisition changes Enact's design story.

Before acquisition:

  • Basic design tools for residential and small commercial
  • Functional but not competitive with Aurora or HelioScope
  • Design was a known weakness in reviews

After acquisition (expected):

  • Enhanced CAD-based design
  • Stronger layout optimization tools
  • Better ground mount support
  • Improved commercial rooftop capabilities

What It Includes:

The Caveat: Integration takes time. How well PVComplete merges with Enact's platform is unknown. For now, design is "improving" but not yet proven in the merged form.

Financial Modeling

Enact includes basic financial modeling for solar projects:

Included Capabilities:

  • Cash purchase analysis
  • Loan scenarios (multiple amortization options)
  • Lease modeling
  • Simple ROI calculations
  • Payback period estimates
  • Basic utility bill analysis

The Gap: Enact's financial modeling is simpler than specialists like Energy Toolbase. For complex storage economics, detailed utility rate analysis with TOU optimization, or PPA structuring, you'll want more depth.

SurgePV Difference: SurgePV provides financial modeling with P50/P75/P90 bankability metrics that Enact doesn't offer. When financiers require conservative estimates, this matters.

CRM & Sales Pipeline

Enact includes full CRM capabilities:

Included Features:

  • Lead capture and management
  • Pipeline tracking with stages
  • Customer communication logging
  • Activity and task management
  • Team collaboration
  • Basic reporting

Integration Options:

  • HubSpot integration
  • Zoho integration
  • (No Salesforce native integration)

Assessment: Decent for small to mid-size teams managing sales workflow. Larger organizations with existing Salesforce deployments may find integration gaps challenging.

Project Management

Lifecycle project tracking from sale to installation:

Included Features:

  • Kanban-style project boards
  • Task assignment and tracking
  • Status tracking and milestones
  • Team coordination tools
  • Document management
  • Basic permitting workflow

This handles the design-to-installation workflow for teams without dedicated PM tools.

Enact Home Consumer App (Unique)

This is genuinely unique to Enact. They offer a consumer-facing mobile app:

What It Does:

  • Customers monitor their solar system production
  • Real-time and historical usage tracking
  • Production vs consumption visibility
  • Bill impact analysis
  • System health monitoring
  • Push notifications for issues

Why It Matters: Customer engagement post-installation keeps your brand in front of customers. This drives:

  • Referral opportunities
  • Upsell potential (storage, additional panels)
  • Customer satisfaction through transparency
  • Reduced support calls (self-service monitoring)

No competitor has a consumer app this developed. If post-installation customer engagement is a priority, this is a genuine differentiator.

Proposals & Sales Tools

Standard proposal generation capabilities:

Included:

  • Professional proposal templates
  • Financial scenarios presentation
  • Equipment specifications
  • Web-based interactive proposals
  • PDF export
  • Email delivery

Customization: Brand customization available, though depth varies by plan.

Blockchain REC Trading (Oracle Partnership)

Enact has built blockchain-based REC (Renewable Energy Certificate) trading through a partnership with Oracle:

What It Does:

  • Track RECs transparently on blockchain
  • Enable peer-to-peer trading
  • Provide verification and audit trails
  • Support compliance reporting

Honest Assessment: Innovative but niche. Most SMB installers don't need blockchain REC trading. It's a feature for specific use cases like:

  • Large portfolio owners managing credits
  • Utilities with REC compliance requirements
  • Organizations with ESG reporting needs

For typical EPCs, this is interesting but not a decision driver.

Hardware-Agnostic Approach

Enact works with all equipment manufacturers:

No Vendor Lock-In:

  • All panel brands supported
  • All inverter brands supported
  • All racking systems
  • All BOS components

This flexibility matters for installers working with multiple suppliers or those who adjust equipment based on availability and pricing.

Enact Solar Pricing & Plans

Enact publishes transparent pricing. That's refreshing in an industry where "contact sales" is common.

Pricing Tiers

Starter Plan: $299/month (2 users)

  • $279/month with annual billing (7% discount)
  • Core design, CRM, project management
  • Unlimited projects included
  • Email support

Scale-Up Plan: Custom pricing

  • More users
  • API access
  • Phone support
  • Advanced integrations
  • Contact sales for quote

Enterprise Plan: $5,000-50,000/year

  • Custom deployment
  • Advanced integrations
  • Dedicated support
  • SLA guarantees
  • Custom training

Free Trial: Available (contact Enact or sign up through website)

What's Included

All plans include unlimited projects. No per-project fees. This is a positive compared to platforms charging per design or per proposal.

Core capabilities across tiers:

  • Solar design tools (now enhanced with PVComplete)
  • CRM and sales pipeline
  • Project management
  • Proposals
  • Basic financial modeling
  • Enact Home consumer app

Hidden Costs to Consider

Category Details Notes
Additional Users Not included in Starter Contact sales for Scale-Up pricing
API Access Scale-Up only Starter plan excluded
Phone Support Scale-Up only Starter gets email only
Training Included basic Advanced training may be extra
Implementation Included Enterprise may have setup fees

Pricing Comparison

Platform Annual Cost Users Included Per-Project Fee Per-User Cost
Enact Solar Starter $3,588/yr ($299/mo) 2 users None $1,794/user/yr
SurgePV (For 3 Users) $1,499/yr total 3 users None $500/user/yr
Aurora Solar ~$4,800/yr (estimate) 1 user Contact sales ~$4,800/user/yr
OpenSolar $2,388/yr ($199/mo) 1 user None $2,388/user/yr

The Math:

  • SurgePV at $1,499/year for 3 users = ~$500/user/year
  • Enact at $3,588/year for 2 users = ~$1,794/user/year
  • SurgePV is 72% less expensive per user

For a 3-person team over a year:

  • SurgePV: $1,499/year total (3 users included)
  • Enact: $5,382/year (scaled from 2-user pricing + 1 additional user)
  • Savings with SurgePV: $3,883/year

What Real Users Say

Enact has presence on G2 and Capterra, plus claims 98% customer satisfaction.

Overall Satisfaction

G2: 4.5/5 (limited review volume)

Capterra: 4.3/5 (limited review volume)

Company Claim: 98% customer satisfaction (not independently verified)

Top Praised Features

Based on available reviews:

  1. All-in-one completeness - Users appreciate not juggling multiple tools
  2. International support - 35+ countries coverage gets positive mentions
  3. Transparent pricing - No surprise fees praised
  4. Enact Home app - Customer engagement feature highlighted
  5. Hardware flexibility - No vendor lock-in appreciated

Common Concerns

From reviews and market analysis:

Design Capabilities (Pre-PVComplete): Users noted design tools were less advanced than competitors like Aurora. The PVComplete acquisition may address this.

US Market: Some users found Enact less established in US compared to Aurora. Support resources seemed more focused on international markets.

Financial Modeling: Reviews noted financial tools are not as deep as specialist platforms like Energy Toolbase.

Support Responsiveness: Mixed feedback on response times. With 80 employees serving 1,000+ customers across 35+ countries, support capacity is stretched.

Integration Limitations: Users wanting Salesforce integration found gaps. HubSpot and Zoho are supported, but the ecosystem is smaller than Aurora's.

User Sentiment by Segment

International Installers: Generally positive. Appreciate multi-country support and localization.

US Residential: Mixed. Some find it capable, others prefer Aurora's US market focus.

Commercial EPCs: Gaps noted in electrical engineering depth. Design improvements with PVComplete may help.

Enact Solar Pros & Cons

Pros

International presence (35+ countries) - Broadest geographic coverage among all-in-one platforms. If you operate in multiple countries, this matters.

10+ year track record - Founded 2014. Proven staying power in a market where many startups have failed.

Transparent pricing - $299/month published. No "contact sales" for core plans. Budget predictability.

All-in-one platform - Design, CRM, PM, proposals, monitoring in one subscription. Reduces tool sprawl.

Enact Home consumer app - Unique customer-facing mobile app. No competitor matches this for post-installation engagement.

Blockchain REC trading - Innovative capability through Oracle partnership. Niche but valuable for specific use cases.

Hardware-agnostic - Works with all equipment brands. No vendor lock-in.

98% customer satisfaction - Company-reported metric suggests strong retention.

PVComplete acquisition - Design capabilities improving. Addresses historical weakness.

Strong backing - $20.5M funding with serious investors. Financial stability.

Cons

US market penetration - Weaker than Aurora in domestic US market. Less brand recognition.

Design capabilities evolving - PVComplete integration still maturing. Merged experience unproven.

Support responsiveness - Mixed user feedback. 80 employees serving global customer base may stretch thin.

Brand awareness in US - Less recognized than Aurora. May affect customer perception.

Limited integrations - HubSpot and Zoho only. No deep Salesforce integration.

Financial modeling depth - Simpler than Energy Toolbase. P50 only (no P75/P90).

Acquisition-based architecture - Merged products may feel less unified than purpose-built platforms.

Pricing per user - $3,588/year for 2 users = $1,794/user vs SurgePV's $500/user.

Electrical engineering unclear - SLD automation status post-acquisition TBD. Wire sizing automation status unknown.

Smaller team - 80 employees vs Aurora 500+. Less development capacity.

SurgePV vs Enact Solar

This is the most direct comparison. Both platforms share the same vision: all-in-one for SMB installers.

Enact Solar vs Other Commercial Platforms

Enact Solar competes in the commercial and international solar design space. Here's how it compares to other key players:

Enact Solar vs Aurora Solar: Aurora Solar is more affordable for US markets and has superior AI roof detection. Enact Solar has better international coverage (35+ countries) and consumer-facing features (Enact Home app). Choose Aurora for US residential/commercial hybrid; Enact for global operations.

Enact Solar vs Energy Toolbase: Energy Toolbase excels in battery storage and financial modeling. Enact Solar is broader (design + financial + proposal). Energy Toolbase for pure financial analysis; Enact for complete workflow integration.

Enact Solar vs PVsyst: PVsyst ($2,000/year) is the gold standard for bankable energy simulations. Enact Solar is more affordable and includes design tools. PVsyst for research-grade accuracy; Enact for practical commercial speed.

Head-to-Head Comparison

Feature SurgePV Enact Solar Winner
Founded Recent 2014 (10+ years) Enact
Market Focus US + India 35+ countries Depends on need
Pricing $1,499/3 users/year ($500/user/yr) $3,588/2 users/year ($1,794/user/yr) SurgePV
SLD Generation Automated (5-10 min) Improving (PVComplete) SurgePV
Wire Sizing Automated TBD SurgePV
Carport Design Native support (only platform) No SurgePV
Tracker Support Single & dual-axis Limited SurgePV
Consumer App No Enact Home (unique) Enact
Architecture Unified (built from ground up) Acquisition-based SurgePV
Support Response 3 minutes average Mixed feedback SurgePV
Bankability Metrics P50/P75/P90 P50 only SurgePV
International Coverage US + India 35+ countries Enact
Onboarding 2-3 weeks Varies SurgePV

Detailed Category Breakdown

Electrical Engineering

Enact Solar: Limited electrical documentation capabilities. SLD automation status unclear post-PVComplete acquisition. Wire sizing automation unknown.

SurgePV: Automated SLD generation (5-10 minutes vs 2-3 hours manual). Automated wire sizing with NEC Article 690 compliance. Voltage drop calculations. Conduit fill calculations.

Why This Matters: Commercial EPCs need electrical documentation for permits. Without it, you're back to AutoCAD ($2,000/year) and 2-3 hours per project.

Real-World Scenario: A 500kW commercial rooftop project needs SLD for permit. With Enact, unclear if automated. With SurgePV, automated SLD in 5-10 minutes, permit-ready.

Commercial Structures

Enact Solar: Standard rooftop and ground-mount. No native carport support. Limited tracker support.

SurgePV: Only platform with native carport design (single cantilever, dual cantilever, multi-column). Single and dual-axis tracker support. East-West racking.

Why This Matters: Carport solar is the fastest-growing commercial segment. If you're bidding carport projects, native design support is significant.

US Market Focus

Enact Solar: 35+ countries, but US penetration weaker than Aurora. International is their strength.

SurgePV: India + US primary focus. 3,000+ US utilities in database. NEC Article 690 compliance built-in. US-specific features prioritized.

Why This Matters: US-focused EPCs benefit from local utility databases, NEC compliance automation, and domestic support coverage.

Platform Architecture

Enact Solar: Core platform + PVComplete acquisition. Two products being merged.

SurgePV: Single unified platform. Design, electrical engineering, proposals, and CRM built together from the start.

Why This Matters: Acquired products can have integration seams. Inconsistent UX, data sync issues, feature gaps between systems. Unified platforms feel more cohesive and have fewer surprises.

Pricing Value

SurgePV: $1,499/year for 3 users = $500/user/year

Enact Solar: $3,588/year for 2 users = $1,794/user/year

Savings with SurgePV: ~$1,294/user/year (72% less)

For a 3-person team annually:

  • SurgePV: $1,499/year
  • Enact: $5,382/year (scaled from 2-user pricing)
  • Annual Savings: $3,883

Where Each Platform Wins

Enact wins for:

  • International coverage (35+ countries vs India + US)
  • Consumer engagement app (Enact Home, unique)
  • Track record (10+ years)
  • Multi-country operations

SurgePV wins for:

  • Electrical engineering (automated SLD, wire sizing)
  • Carport design (only platform with native support)
  • Tracker support (single and dual-axis)
  • Pricing (72% less per user)
  • Support response (3 minutes average)
  • Unified architecture (not acquisition-stitched)
  • Bankability metrics (P50/P75/P90)

Who Should Use Enact Solar?

Enact Solar Is Best For

  • International installers operating in multiple countries across 35+ markets
  • Companies wanting proven platforms with 10+ year track record
  • Teams valuing consumer engagement through Enact Home app
  • Hardware-agnostic operations working with multiple equipment suppliers
  • SMB installers wanting all-in-one without specialist tool complexity
  • Organizations needing blockchain REC tracking (specific use case)

Enact Solar Is Not Ideal For

  • US-focused commercial EPCs - SurgePV has better US depth
  • Teams needing advanced electrical engineering - SLD automation still evolving
  • Budget-conscious buyers - $1,794/user/year vs $500/user/year
  • Commercial carport projects - SurgePV is only platform with native support
  • Tracker installations - Limited tracker support
  • Salesforce-native organizations - No deep Salesforce integration

Consider SurgePV Instead If...

  • You're a US-focused EPC (better domestic coverage)
  • Electrical engineering (SLD, wire sizing) is critical
  • Carport design is part of your business
  • Lower pricing matters ($1,499/3 users vs $3,588/2 users)
  • You want unified platform architecture (not acquisition-based)
  • Fast support response is important (3 minutes average)
  • You need P75/P90 bankability metrics for financing

Switching from Enact Solar to SurgePV?

Common Reasons Users Switch

  1. Electrical engineering gaps - Need automated SLD generation without AutoCAD
  2. Pricing concerns - Looking for better per-user economics
  3. US market focus - Want deeper domestic coverage
  4. Commercial structures - Need carport or tracker support
  5. Support responsiveness - Want faster support response

Migration Process

Timeline: Typically 2-3 weeks for full transition

Steps:

  1. Data Export - Export project data, customer records from Enact
  2. SurgePV Setup - Account creation, team onboarding
  3. Data Import - Customer and project migration assistance
  4. Parallel Testing - Run both platforms briefly to validate workflows
  5. Full Transition - Switch primary operations to SurgePV
  6. Training Completion - Ensure team proficiency

Migration Support

SurgePV offers:

  • Dedicated migration specialist
  • Data import assistance
  • 1:1 onboarding sessions
  • Team training (video + live)
  • Priority support during transition

Risk Mitigation

  • Trial period: Test SurgePV before committing
  • Parallel run capability: Run both platforms during transition
  • Responsive support: 3-minute average response if issues arise

Data Portability

Data Type Can Migrate? Notes
Customer records Yes CSV export/import
Project data Partial Manual recreation may be needed
Design files No Redesign in SurgePV
Financial scenarios No Recreate with SurgePV tools
Proposals No Create new in SurgePV

Enact Solar vs SurgePV: Feature Comparison

How Enact Solar compares to SurgePV across the features commercial EPCs need most.

Feature Enact Solar SurgePV
Automated SLD Generation No Yes (Automated, 5-10 min)
Wire Sizing Calculations No Yes (Instant, automated)
Carport Solar Design No Yes (Native support (only platform))
Solar Tracker Support No Yes (Single & dual-axis)
P50/P75/P90 Bankability Basic P50/P75/P90 (All three metrics)
Cloud-Based Platform Yes Yes (Fully cloud-based)
Integrated Proposals Yes (CRM-integrated) Yes (Interactive + PDF)
Pricing Contact sales From $1,499/user/yr (All-inclusive)
Onboarding Time 2-3 weeks 2-3 weeks
Support Response Time Standard 3 min avg (Response time)

Why Commercial EPCs Choose SurgePV

End-to-end solar design with engineering-grade accuracy, without AutoCAD or tool switching.

  Automated SLD generation in 5-10 min (saves 2+ hours vs AutoCAD)

  Only platform with native carport solar design

  P50/P75/P90 bankability metrics for financiers

  All-inclusive pricing from $1,499/user/year

Book a Demo

Final Verdict: Enact Solar vs SurgePV

Enact Solar Summary

Strengths:

  • International presence (35+ countries, genuinely the broadest)
  • Consumer engagement app (Enact Home is unique)
  • Track record (10+ years, proven staying power)
  • Transparent pricing in an industry of "contact sales"

Ideal For:

  • International installers operating across multiple countries
  • Teams prioritizing post-installation customer engagement
  • Companies wanting proven, established platforms
  • Organizations needing blockchain REC trading

Limitations:

  • US market penetration weaker than Aurora
  • Design capabilities still integrating post-acquisition
  • Electrical engineering depth unclear
  • Higher per-user pricing than alternatives

SurgePV Summary

Strengths:

  • Integrated electrical engineering (automated SLD in 5-10 minutes, wire sizing, voltage drop)
  • Only platform with native carport design
  • 72% lower per-user pricing
  • Unified architecture (not acquisition-based)
  • 3-minute average support response
  • P50/P75/P90 bankability metrics

Ideal For:

  • US-focused commercial EPCs
  • Teams needing electrical documentation without AutoCAD
  • Carport and tracker installers
  • Budget-conscious operations
  • Organizations wanting unified platform experience

Why Teams Switch: Electrical engineering gaps, pricing, US market focus, carport/tracker needs, support responsiveness.

Our Recommendation

For international installers operating across multiple countries, Enact's 35+ country coverage is genuinely valuable. If you need multi-region support and post-installation customer engagement through Enact Home, Enact is worth evaluating.

However, for US-focused commercial EPCs:

SurgePV delivers a more complete, cost-effective solution. Automated SLD generation saves 2-3 hours per project. Native carport design eliminates workarounds. 72% lower per-user pricing improves your margins. Unified architecture means fewer surprises as you scale.

Bottom Line

Enact and SurgePV share the same vision. The execution differs.

Watch the PVComplete integration. If it matures well, Enact's design story improves significantly. For now, if you're a US commercial EPC needing electrical engineering without AutoCAD, SurgePV is the stronger choice.

Ready to Compare?

If Enact's US penetration concerns you, or if electrical engineering automation is critical, see how a US-focused platform compares.

See SurgePV in Action

Book a 15-Minute Demo

What you'll see:

  • Automated SLD generation (5-10 minutes vs 2-3 hours)
  • Native carport design capabilities
  • P50/P75/P90 bankability reports
  • Complete electrical documentation workflow

No pressure, no obligation.

Not ready for a demo?

FAQ: Enact Solar Questions Answered

How much does Enact Solar cost?

Enact Starter plan costs $299/month for 2 users ($279/month with annual billing). Scale-Up plans with more users and API access require contacting sales for custom pricing. Enterprise plans range $5,000-50,000/year depending on deployment complexity and seat count.

Is Enact Solar good for US installers?

Mixed. Enact operates in 35+ countries but has weaker US market penetration than Aurora. They have US enterprise clients (Black & Veatch, JLL), but SMB adoption in the US lags compared to Aurora. For US-focused operations, platforms like SurgePV or Aurora have better domestic coverage, utility databases, and brand recognition.

What is Enact Home?

Enact Home is Enact's consumer-facing mobile app for homeowners with solar systems. It allows monitoring of production, consumption tracking, bill impact analysis, and system health visibility. This is a unique feature. No competitor offers a comparable post-installation customer engagement app.

Did Enact acquire PVComplete?

Yes. In January 2026, Enact acquired PVComplete to strengthen design capabilities. PVComplete brings CAD-based design tools and commercial/ground-mount expertise. The integration is ongoing, so the full impact on design quality and user experience is still developing.

Does Enact Solar have CRM?

Yes. Enact includes CRM with lead management, pipeline tracking, customer communication logging, and team collaboration. It integrates with HubSpot and Zoho. However, it lacks native Salesforce integration, which may matter for larger organizations.

Is Enact Solar better than Aurora?

Different strengths. Enact is better for: international operations (35+ countries), transparent pricing, consumer engagement (Enact Home). Aurora is better for: US market presence, residential sales workflows, larger established user base, more integrations. Neither has strong electrical engineering (SLD, wire sizing).

Is Enact Solar better than SurgePV?

Different strengths. Enact is better for: international coverage (35+ countries), track record (10+ years), consumer app (Enact Home). SurgePV is better for: US market focus, electrical engineering (SLD, wire sizing), carport design, pricing (72% less per user), unified architecture, support response time (3 minutes average), bankability metrics (P75/P90).

Does Enact Solar work internationally?

Yes. Enact operates in 35+ countries. This is their strongest differentiator. Key international clients include Mahindra Susten (India), Jinko (global), and installations across Europe, Asia, Middle East, and Africa. If you operate in multiple countries, this breadth matters.

What is Enact's blockchain REC trading?

Enact built blockchain-based Renewable Energy Certificate tracking and trading through a partnership with Oracle. It enables transparent REC tracking, peer-to-peer trading, verification, and compliance reporting. Innovative but niche. Most SMB installers don't need this feature.

Does Enact Solar offer a free trial?

Yes. Free trials are available. Contact Enact or sign up through their website to access a trial period before committing to a paid plan.

Can Enact Solar generate SLDs?

Unclear post-PVComplete acquisition. Historically, Enact's electrical documentation was limited. Whether the PVComplete acquisition adds automated SLD generation is not confirmed. Compare to SurgePV which includes automated SLD generation in 5-10 minutes without external tools.

Does Enact Solar support carport design?

No. Enact does not have native carport solar design support. For carport projects, teams typically need workarounds or external tools. SurgePV is the only platform with native carport design (single cantilever, dual cantilever, multi-column structures).